Primitive Thinking
One of the major successes of the development of Western philosophy was promoting the transition from primitive modes of thinking to rational modes of thinking. Primitive thinking is descriptive and can only deal with a few abstractions. Primitive thinking forms representations of objects, rather than addressing them as concepts. It is comprehensive but not analytic. It is direct but not specific. Ideas and constructs are addressed collectively, rather than individually.
The transition to adopting rational thinking can be illustrated in a phenomenon known as the child's thinking issue. More specifically, we observe that when a child is born they cannot think rationally. Their understanding of the world passes through a series of phases, each providing a different perspective on the world. In the first couple of years of infancy, a child is in their sensory-motor phase. They are not aware of their surroundings and struggle to differentiate foreign objects from themselves. It is only the things they touch that are noticed and registered. From here the child enters the pre-operational phase, which is relevant until the age of around six. Here the child has a better understanding of their surroundings, with a sense of themselves and the environment. However, they still cannot do concrete operations. For instance, a child in this phase may understand zero as an object, say as the digit, however, they struggle to connect this to the concept of nothing. The concrete operation phase then lasts until the age of around eleven. During this phase, the child gains an understanding of concepts. They can grasp mental constructs. The formal operation phase then follows, where the child is able to use basic concepts to inform their actions. What is apparent in this evolution of reasoning is that the child is progressively more able to abstract and grasp mental concepts and use them to inform their actions. The transitions from primitive to rational thinking can be seen as a refinement of this process, where a more sophisticated representation of mental concepts is achieved, facilitating principally informed actions.
Interesting evidence for the transition from primitive to rational thinking can be observed in how the early literature of Western philosophy was formalised. Homer's preliminary work on Western philosophy was formalised in the form of poems. Poetry is a connector between abstract mental imagery and structured language. Through its rhythm and structure, poetry can capture meaning beyond the written words. In these primitive stages of Western philosophy, the methods of rational thinking were not developed, and so early scholars resorted to poetry to try and fruitfully express their ideas. Indeed, with the advent of rational thinking, we utilise written language in the form of logic, mathematics and critical analyses to express our ideas. However, poetry is still effective for what it lacks in rigour and specificity it makes up for in providing a mood. Providing a mood behind philosophical arguments is critical for eliciting support and generating a following for the ideas. Poetry prevails as a medium for unifying individuals under a common idea, for it taps into a human connection that exists beyond the words of language.
This is not to say that the primitive mode of thinking is not useful, or inferior to the rational mode of thinking. The primitive mode of thinking has been established as a set of cognitive abilities necessary for survival. However, to flourish we must adopt a rational mode of thinking.
In this era of pre-rational thinking, Western philosophers held beliefs. They were limited in their capacity to support their claims with sound arguments. Consequently, many philosophers in this era were labelled as mystics. A feature of this mode of thinking is the contemplation of metaphysical ideas. An ability to escape the realm of reality and question what is beyond our perception. For example, early Western philosophers contemplated the existence of entities beyond the constraints of time. Are there objects that exist eternally not because they persist through time, but because they exist outside of it? Hercaltius entertained the notion that such an eternal object exists. Despite this Heraclitus fundamentally believed that everything changes, which is reflected in his belief that everything was fire. On the other hand, Parmenides was adamant that nothing changes, and our perceptions deceive us. His argument for suggesting that nothing changes is that the existence of something in the present moment implies its existence in the immediate past, and therefore its existence in the eternal past. Therefore, the thing must have maintained a constant meaning and thus everything must remain constant. Stuart Russell pushes back on this argument in his book ‘History of Western Philosophy’. Specifically, he uses the example of words and their meanings to demonstrate how things must change over time. It may seem at first that the meaning behind words remains constant throughout time, however, their perpetual change is concealed by the fact that these changes cause no effect on the truthfulness or falsehood within the phrases they are used.
Clearly these thoughts entertained by Heraclitus and Parmenides cannot be explored through rational thinking. However, their contemplation can motivate rational investigations into our reality. It is often the case that exercises in primitive thinking develop into a field of rational thinking. Alchemy motivated the study of chemistry, metaphysics prompted the development of physics.
After this period of primitive, indulgent thinking Russell notes a decline in the vigour of philosophy. The philosophy after this period lacked an emphasis on man and its comparison to the universe.
Scepticism focuses on how we know rather than how we can come to know.
Socrates emphasised our ethics.
Plato rejects the world and instead emphasises the self-created world of thought.
Aristotle held a belief in the absolute pursuit of science.
The more metaphysical contemplations entertained by mystic philosophers would not be revived until the Renaissance. So although rational modes of thinking enhanced our capacity to pursue scientific agendas, expand our technological capacity, more effectively manage our ethics, and develop cohesive societies. It is too restrictive to entertain our thoughts that take us beyond our current reality. Progress requires a balance of rigorously pursuing technological advancements and a primitive exploration of what lies beyond our senses.